Why banks fail

Banks are essential institutions that provide various financial services to individuals, businesses, and governments, playing a critical role in the economy. However, bank failures can significantly affect customers, the financial system, and the broader economy. This essay will explore twenty reasons banks can fail, citing examples from different countries to illustrate each point.

Poor Risk Management
Banks can only succeed if they make sound investment decisions and avoid taking on too much risk. Poor risk management can lead to losses eroding their capital and solvency. For example, Lehman Brothers collapsed in 2008 due to significant exposure to subprime mortgage-backed securities, as the bank had taken on significant risk without adequately assessing the potential consequences of a downturn in the housing market.

Economic Conditions
Weak economic conditions can lead to high unemployment rates, lower interest rates, and reduced loan demand. This can cause banks to suffer losses and reduce their ability to lend. In 1990, the Japanese banking crisis was caused by an asset bubble that burst and led to a recession. The crisis was compounded by a lack of regulatory oversight, which allowed banks to engage in risky lending practices.

Fraud
Banks can fail due to fraud committed by employees or management, resulting in significant losses that can undermine their financial stability. In 2011, Allied Irish Bank suffered a loss of $691 million due to fraudulent activity involving the concealment of losses through accounting irregularities, which were not detected by the bank’s management.

Poor Corporate Governance
Poor governance practices, such as a lack of transparency, can cause banks to fail. This can erode investor confidence and lead to a loss of credibility. For example, in 2012, the UK-based Co-operative Bank nearly collapsed due to poor governance practices. The bank’s management needed to properly assess the risks associated with a merger with Britannia Building Society, which had significant exposure to risky assets.

Cybersecurity Threats
Banks are vulnerable to cyber attacks that can compromise customer data and lead to financial losses. This can damage their reputation and erode customer trust. In 2017, the Equifax data breach exposed the personal information of 143 million customers, leading to a loss of $4 billion in market value. The breach was caused by a failure to properly secure the company’s database, which was exploited by hackers.

Lack of Liquidity
Banks can only succeed if they have enough cash to meet their obligations, resulting in a loss of confidence among depositors and investors, which can cause a bank run. In 2007, Northern Rock in the UK could not obtain sufficient funding to cover its mortgage lending, leading to a government bailout. The crisis was caused by a lack of liquidity and a failure to properly manage the risks associated with its lending practices.

Regulatory Failure
Regulators can fail to enforce laws and regulations, allowing banks to engage in risky behaviour that can lead to their collapse. The 2008 financial crisis was partly caused by regulatory failures in the US. Banks were allowed to engage in risky lending practices, which were not properly regulated, leading to a collapse of the housing market and the failure of several banks.

Political Instability
Political instability can cause a loss of investor confidence and lead to bank failures. In 2014, the Ukrainian banking system suffered a crisis due to political unrest. The crisis was caused by the conflict between the Ukrainian government and Russian-backed separatists, which led to a loss of confidence in the country’s banking system.

Natural Disasters
Banks can fail due to natural disasters such as floods, earthquakes, or hurricanes. This can disrupt their operations and cause a loss of confidence among customers and investors. In 2005, Hurricane Katrina caused many banks in New Orleans to close temporarily. The banks could not operate due to damage to their facilities and a lack of access to cash. The Federal Reserve had to provide emergency funding to ensure the banks could resume operations. Similarly, in 2011, the earthquake and tsunami in Japan caused disruptions to the banking system, as many banks could not open due to damage to their facilities. The Japanese government had to intervene to ensure the banks had sufficient liquidity to meet their obligations.

Corruption
Corruption can lead to the failure of banks by causing a loss of confidence in the banking system. In 2008, the Icelandic banking crisis was caused by corruption and reckless lending practices. The banks had engaged in risky lending practices, and their executives had been involved in corrupt practices, which led to a loss of confidence in the country’s banking system.

Capital Inadequacy
Banks can only succeed if they have sufficient capital to cover losses. This can result in a loss of investor confidence and a decline in the bank’s stock price. In 2013, the Italian bank Monte dei Paschi di Siena nearly collapsed due to a lack of capital. The bank had engaged in risky lending practices, and its capital had been eroded by losses.

Inflation
Inflation can reduce the value of a bank’s assets and lead to a loss of investor confidence. This can result in a bank’s stock price decline and a loss of deposits. In the 1990s, hyperinflation caused many banks in Argentina to fail. The inflation rate reached as high as 5,000%, which eroded the value of the banks’ assets and led to a loss of confidence in the banking system.

Mismanagement
Banks can fail due to poor management practices. This can result in a decline in the bank’s profitability and a loss of investor confidence. In 2018, Punjab National Bank in India suffered a loss of $2 billion due to mismanagement and fraudulent activity. The bank’s management had failed to properly assess the risks associated with its lending practices, which led to significant losses.

Technological Disruption
Banks can fail to keep up with technological changes that disrupt the industry. This can result in a loss of customers and a decline in the bank’s profitability. In 2020, Wirecard, a German payment processor, collapsed due to fraudulent accounting practices and competition from new fintech companies. The company had failed to properly account for its revenues, which led to a loss of investor confidence.

Pandemics
Pandemics can cause economic downturns that can lead to bank failures. This can result in a decline in the bank’s profitability and a loss of investor confidence. In 2020, the COVID-19 pandemic caused many banks to suffer losses due to reduced economic activity. The pandemic led to a decline in consumer spending and a rise in unemployment, which affected the profitability of banks.

Sovereign Debt Crises
Banks can fail due to a government’s inability to repay its debts. This can result in a loss of investor confidence and a decline in the bank’s stock price. In 2015, the Greek banking system suffered a crisis due to the country’s sovereign debt crisis. The crisis was caused by a combination of factors, including a high level of government debt and a decline in economic growth.

Interest Rate Risk
Banks can fail if they do not manage interest rate risks properly. Changes in interest rates can affect a bank’s profitability and solvency. For example, in the 1980s, many US banks failed due to interest rate risk caused by deregulation. The deregulation of interest rates led to a sharp increase in interest rates, which led to a decline in the value of banks’ assets and a rise in loan defaults.

Market Volatility
Banks can fail due to sudden changes in market conditions, such as sharp declines in stock prices or disruptions in the bond market. This can result in a decline in the bank’s stock price and a loss of investor confidence. For example, in 1998, the collapse of Long-Term Capital Management caused a global financial crisis. The collapse was caused by a combination of factors, including a lack of risk management.

Banks can fail due to a complex and interrelated set of factors, such as poor risk management, economic conditions, fraud, poor corporate governance, cybersecurity threats, lack of liquidity, regulatory failure, political instability, natural disasters, globalization, corruption, capital inadequacy, inflation, mismanagement, technological disruption, pandemics, sovereign debt crises, interest rate risk, market volatility, and mergers and acquisitions.
Banks must have effective risk management practices, adequate capital, and strong corporate governance to prevent failures.
Regulatory oversight is also crucial in maintaining stability in the banking system. By understanding and addressing these factors, banks can help to avoid failures, protect their customers, and contribute to a stable and healthy economy.